A-level economics revision guides and question banks covering labour markets, supply and demand, market structure and all core economics a-level topics.
以下内容我们会持续更新：
今天带给大家Alevel经济笔记是：
第七章：劳动力市场——最低工资
The minimum wage has become a very popular topic with examiners in recent years due, in large part, to the introduction of the National Minimum Wage in April 1999, set at £3.60 an hour for workers aged 22 and over, and £3.00 for 18-21 year olds.
Before we look at the controversies surrounding this policy, we must look at the theory behind the minimum wage.
近年来，最低工资已成为审查员非常热门的话题，这在很大程度上是由于 1999 年 4 月引入了国家最低工资，规定 22 岁及以上工人每小时 3.60 英镑，18 岁工人每小时 3.00 英镑-21 岁。在我们审视围绕这项政策的争议之前，我们必须先看看最低工资背后的理论。
Minimum wage theory最低工资理论The minimum wage is a pay floor. Employers are not allowed to pay their employees a rate below the minimum wage.
This only causes problems if the minimum wage set is above the equilibrium wage rate that would otherwise prevail in the labour market.
最低工资是工资底线。雇主不得向雇员支付低于最低工资的工资。这只会在最低工资高于劳动力市场的均衡工资率时才会引起问题。
The diagram above is the classic minimum wage set up.
You see the 'normal' supply and demand curves.
The equilibrium wage and employment levels are £2.50 and L1 respectively.
The government then imposes the National Minimum Wage at the rate £3.60.
As with the situation when the union forces the wage up, the new supply curve is the solid green line SMW.
So the new equilibrium is at point A, giving a wage (obviously) of £3.60 and a reduced level of employment L2.
上图是经典的最低工资设置。您会看到“正常”的供需曲线。均衡工资和就业水平分别为 2.50 英镑和 L 1。然后，政府以 3.60 英镑的价格实施全国最低工资。与工会强制提高工资的情况一样，新的供给曲线是绿色实线 S MW。因此，新的均衡点位于 A 点，工资（显然）为 3.60 英镑，就业水平降低 L 2。
Of course, the fall in employment (L1 - L2) is significant, but the effect on unemployment is even worse.
The unemployment figures have to include those who will now offer their labour services at the higher wage rate but cannot actually get a job (L3 - L1).
This gives a total level of unemployment in this labour market of L3 - L2, which is larger than the loss in employment.
当然，就业下降（L 1 - L 2）是显着的，但对失业的影响甚至更糟。失业数字必须包括那些现在将以更高的工资率提供劳务但实际上无法找到工作的人（L 3 - L 1）。这使得劳动力市场的总失业水平为 L 3 - L 2，大于就业损失。
Of course, most industries in the UK were broadly unaffected by the National Minimum Wage (NMW).
Any industry whose wage rate was already above £3.60 an hour had an equilibrium wage rate above the price floor imposed.
当然，英国的大多数行业基本不受国家最低工资 (NMW) 的影响。任何工资率已经超过每小时 3.60 英镑的行业，其均衡工资率都高于规定的价格下限。
To put the size of the NMW into perspective, let's use the example of a nurse earning £12,000 a year.
Remember, some nurses actually earn less than that (outrageously!). This means she (or he) will earn £1000 a month.
If she works a busy 50 hours per week (more than most workers), then that is 200 hours a month.
£1000 divided by 200 hours gives a £5 per hour wage rate.
I think most of you would agree that nursing is an appallingly paid profession, and yet even nurses earn well above the NMW.
In the diagram above, you can see that the wage floor is below the equilibrium wage rate.
In this example, the NMW has absolutely no effect on that equilibrium.
为了透视 NMW 的规模，让我们以一名年收入 12,000 英镑的护士为例。请记住，有些护士的收入实际上比这要少（令人发指！）。这意味着她（或他）将每月赚取 1000 英镑。如果她每周工作 50 小时（比大多数工人多），那么就是每月 200 小时。1000 英镑除以 200 小时得出每小时 5 英镑的工资率。我想你们中的大多数人都会同意护理是一个高薪的职业，但即使是护士的收入也远高于 NMW。在上图中，您可以看到工资下限低于均衡工资率。在这个例子中，NMW 对那个平衡完全没有影响。
The industries that do tend to be affected are hospitality (a third of the workforce affected); security and cleaning (30% affected) and agriculture, retailing and social care (all 20%, figures from the Labour Force Survey).
确实容易受到影响的行业是酒店业（三分之一的劳动力受到影响）；安全和清洁（30% 受影响）以及农业、零售和社会关怀（均为 20%，来自劳动力调查的数据）。
One last point.
You can probably see that the elasticity of both the demand and supply curves will affect the amount of unemployment caused by a minimum wage.
The flatter (more elastic) the two curves are the larger the unemployment will be.
The steeper (more inelastic) the two curves are the smaller the increased unemployment will be.
最后一点。您可能会看到，需求曲线和供给曲线的弹性都会影响由最低工资引起的失业量。两条曲线越平坦（弹性越大），失业率就越大。两条曲线越陡峭（越缺乏弹性），失业率增加的幅度就越小。
The case for the National Minimum Wage① Reducing poverty:
Unsurprisingly, households whose earners were paid less than the NMW also tended to be those who were officially defined as 'in poverty' (income of less than half median earnings).
It was felt that the NMW would lift households out of poverty. Of course, this leads to another advantage of the NMW; it should, therefore, lead to a fairer distribution of income.
减少贫困：
不出所料，收入低于 NMW 的家庭也往往是那些被官方定义为“贫困”的家庭（收入低于收入中位数的一半）。人们认为 NMW 将使家庭摆脱贫困。当然，这带来了 NMW 的另一个优势。因此，它应该导致更公平的收入分配。
② Tax and benefits:
If earnings rise as a result of the NMW, government tax receipts from earners will rise and the benefits paid to those in work but on low incomes should reduce.
Government finances will improve, which could be spent on reducing the national debt, reducing taxes or spending on important services like education or health.
税收和福利：
如果 NMW 导致收入增加，政府从收入者那里获得的税收将会增加，而支付给在职但低收入者的福利应该会减少。政府财政状况将有所改善，可用于减少国债、减税或在教育或医疗等重要服务上的支出。
③ The effect on productivity:
Some economists believe that the increased wage might improve labour productivity.
Workers may respond to their higher wage rate by working harder, possibly as a result of worrying about losing their job now that the increased wage rate has made it a more 'sought after' job.
Employers may force through productivity improvements.
They may feel that the increased wage rate needs to be earned through increased efforts!
对生产力的影响：
一些经济学家认为，提高工资可能会提高劳动生产率。工人们可能会通过更努力地工作来应对更高的工资率，这可能是因为担心失去工作，因为工资率的提高使其成为更“受追捧”的工作。雇主可能会强制提高生产力。他们可能会觉得增加的工资率需要通过增加努力来获得！
In the diagram above, you can see what happens when productivity improves.
The shift to the right of the demand curve (the MRP curve, remember) reduces the 'unemployment' gap.
The initial demand curve, D1, gives an 'unemployment gap' equal to AC.
The shift to D2 reduces the gap to BC. If the curve shifts all the way to D3 then the gap is eliminated.
Employment has risen to L2 at wage £3.60. Before the minimum wage was introduced the wage was lower at W1 and employment lower at L1.
The demand curve may even shift all the way to D4.
This would push the wage and employment levels even higher (equilibrium point D).
在上图中，您可以看到当生产力提高时会发生什么。需求曲线（MRP 曲线，请记住）向右移动缩小了“失业”差距。初始需求曲线 D 1给出了等于 AC 的“失业缺口”。向 D 2的转变缩小了与 BC 的差距。如果曲线一直移动到 D 3，则间隙被消除。以 3.60 英镑的工资，就业率上升到 L 2。在引入最低工资之前，W 1的工资较低，L 1的就业较低。需求曲线甚至可能一直移动到 D 4。这将推高工资和就业水平（均衡点 D）。
④ Improved incentives:
It may be difficult to believe, but there are a number of people who are voluntarily unemployed.
They are not prepared to supply their labour services at the given equilibrium wage in the labour market that is appropriate to their skills.
To put it in cruder terms, who would want to clean toilets for £2 an hour?
Many would rather collect unemployment benefit and do nothing.
A NMW puts a floor of these low wage rates and acts as an incentive to encourage some of these 'voluntarily unemployed' people back to work.
This will save the government money on benefits, increase income tax revenues and improve the productive potential of the economy.
改善激励措施：
这可能令人难以置信，但有很多人自愿失业。他们不准备在劳动力市场上以适合其技能的给定均衡工资提供劳务。简而言之，谁愿意以每小时 2 英镑的价格打扫厕所？许多人宁愿领取失业救济金，什么也不做。NMW 为这些低工资率设定了一个底线，并作为鼓励这些“自愿失业”的人重返工作岗位的激励措施。这将节省政府的福利资金，增加所得税收入并提高经济的生产潜力。
The case against the National Minimum Wage反对国家最低工资的案例
① Unemployment:
We have already seen how a NMW can cause unemployment.
Pessimists did not accept that huge productivity improvements were feasible.
This is the main disadvantage, but we shall see in the last section whether this problem proved to be as widespread as the pessimists believed it would.
失业：我们已经看到 NMW 如何导致失业。悲观主义者不接受巨大的生产力提高是可行的。这是主要的缺点，但我们将在最后一节看到这个问题是否被证明像悲观主义者认为的那样普遍。
② The maintenance of pay differentials:
There was a worry that a higher wage rate at the low end of the scale may cause those higher up the pay scale to insist on pay rises to maintain the pay differentials.
In theory, this could happen all the way up the pay scale and be very inflationary.
If you were earning £3.60 an hour, and then someone in an inferior job earning £2.50 an hour was suddenly earning £3.60 an hour as well, simply because of the NMW, you would probably be a bit annoyed.
You might ask your employer for an extra £1 an hour to restore the difference between the two wage rates.
If you were successful, then your wage rate would rise to £4.60 an hour, which may be the same as someone else in a slightly better job. He may then ask for a pay rise.
This process could go on forever!
维持薪酬差异：
有人担心，较低端的较高工资率可能会导致较高的薪酬水平坚持加薪以维持薪酬差异。从理论上讲，这可能会一直发生在薪酬水平上，并且会非常通货膨胀。如果你的时薪是 3.60 英镑，然后某个时薪 2.50 英镑的低级工作的人突然也能赚到 3.60 英镑，仅仅因为 NMW，你可能会有点恼火。您可能会要求您的雇主每小时额外支付 1 英镑，以恢复两种工资率之间的差额。如果你成功了，那么你的工资将上升到每小时 4.60 英镑，这可能与其他工作稍好一些的人相同。然后他可能会要求加薪。这个过程可以永远持续下去！
③ Are those in poverty wage earners?
One of the main advantages of the NMW was its success in reducing poverty by increasing the wage of low-income families.
But many households in poverty are struggling precisely because no one in the household has a job. The NMW is useless to the unemployed.
那些处于贫困状态的人是工薪阶层吗？
NMW 的主要优势之一是它通过提高低收入家庭的工资成功地减少了贫困。但许多贫困家庭正在苦苦挣扎，正是因为家里没有人工作。NMW 对失业者毫无用处。
④ High cost to employers:
The bureaucracy involved in complying with the new law, plus the actual cost of the higher wage (assuming productivity improvements are not significant) may force firms to increase the price of their products, which is detrimental to consumers.
They may also cut back on expensive training for employees.
雇主的高成本：
遵守新法律所涉及的官僚机构，加上更高工资的实际成本（假设生产力提高不显着）可能会迫使公司提高产品价格，这对消费者不利。他们还可能减少对员工的昂贵培训。
⑤ Regional differences:
The NMW is national.
The wage floor is the same rate nationwide. Is that fair?
It costs a lot more to live in London than anywhere else in the UK, and yet a struggling cleaner will be paid the same wherever he/she works in the country.
地区差异：
NMW 是全国性的。工资底线在全国范围内是相同的。这公平吗？住在伦敦的成本比英国其他任何地方都要高得多，然而，一个苦苦挣扎的清洁工在该国工作的任何地方都将获得相同的报酬。
An evaluation of the National Minimum Wage国家最低工资评估
The NMW has been operational for well over a year now.
Were the optimists right (see the 'case for' above) or were the pessimists closer to the truth (see the 'case against' above)?
NMW 已经运行了一年多。乐观主义者是对的（参见上面的“案例”）还是悲观主义者更接近真相（参见上面的“案例反对”）？
The big disadvantage of the NMW was unemployment. Has this happened?
Well, not really.
Unemployment is lower than it has been for 20 years, and there does not seem to be much evidence in particular industries of significant job losses.
Perhaps the government was lucky that the NMW was introduced at a time of rising employment and strong economic fundamentals.
There is evidence that employers are, on the whole, adhering to the law (and paying the NMW), and yet employment keeps rising.
Perhaps productivity has improved, offsetting the rising wage, as some economists predicted.
There was certainly evidence from America to suggest this might be the case.
Employment levels were assessed at fast-food restaurants before and after an increase in the minimum wage.
In some cases, employment levels actually rose (the rises were small, though).
NMW的最大缺点是失业。这发生过吗？嗯，不是真的。失业率低于 20 年来的水平，在特定行业中似乎没有太多证据表明大量失业。也许政府很幸运，NMW 是在就业增加和经济基本面强劲的时候推出的。有证据表明，雇主总体上遵守法律（并支付 NMW），但就业人数仍在不断增加。正如一些经济学家预测的那样，也许生产力有所提高，抵消了工资上涨的影响。美国肯定有证据表明情况可能如此。在提高最低工资之前和之后评估了快餐店的就业水平。在某些情况下，就业水平实际上有所上升（不过增幅很小）。
Others argue that the main reason why there was little effect on employment was because the NMW was set at such a low rate.
If the wage floor is set only just above the equilibrium, then one can see that the effect on employment will be small, especially if there are some improvements in productivity.
其他人则认为，对就业影响不大的主要原因是 NMW 设定在如此低的水平。如果工资下限仅设置在均衡之上，那么人们可以看到对就业的影响将很小，尤其是在生产率有所提高的情况下。
The big disappointment with the NMW appears to be the fact that it has had little success in reducing poverty.
We mentioned the point about many of those in poverty being unemployed, and therefore unaffected.
Another point to note is that many of the workers who benefited were part-time workers, and in particular, female part-time workers bringing a second income into the household.
These were not poor households. In fact, the Institute of Fiscal Studies estimated that only 4% of households in the bottom half of the UK's income distribution gained from the NMW compared with 7% in the richer half!
So not only did the NMW do little to reduce poverty, it also did little to make the distribution of income in the UK fairer.
NMW 最大的失望似乎是它在减少贫困方面收效甚微。我们提到了许多贫困人口失业，因此不受影响的观点。另一点值得注意的是，许多受益的工人是兼职工人，特别是女性兼职工人，他们为家庭带来了第二份收入。这些不是贫困家庭。事实上，财政研究所估计，在英国收入分配最底层的一半家庭中，只有 4% 的家庭从 NMW 中获益，而在较富裕的一半家庭中这一比例为 7%！因此，NMW 不仅在减少贫困方面几乎没有做任何事情，而且在使英国的收入分配更加公平方面也几乎没有做任何事情。
今天的Alevel经济笔记就更新到这里，如果大家对Alevel经济学感兴趣可以关注我们，
关于Alevel经济笔记第7章：劳动力市场后续的更新计划如下：